Not surprisingly, various interwoven elements, conditions, and practices support health and disease prevention. We present this information in that good management, husbandry, and stockmanship on all types of operations, including organic and alternative ones, is the foundation of disease prevention!

The questions presented after each section below can be used as conversation starters with your organic and alternative clients. These questions are gathered and included in this separate handout, Animal Health Conversation Starters.

Genetics

Supporting animal health through genetics includes the cultural practice of choosing livestock breeds specifically adapted to a region, climate, and forages. It also includes choosing animals that are genetically resistant to specific parasites. For example, researchers have found that breeding sheep with low fecal egg counts results in offspring with elevated natural immunity to parasites and reduced need for deworming. Ewes with lower fecal egg counts also have more IgGs passed to their lambs when nursing, and these sheep develop more antibodies in response to vaccination. Using genetics can strengthen animals’ natural immunity and improve resistance to disease overall (Bowdridge et al., 2015). Practices related to genetics reflect good husbandry and improve animal health, welfare, and production. Selective culling should be considered when certain individual animals are not performing like the rest of the herd. Paying attention to the herd and only breeding from the best animals results in a better herd (Coffey & Baier, 2012).

Questions for vets, farmers, and ranchers to consider:

• What breeds do you currently have or want to have in the future?
• Is your herd closed (e.g., animals bred from within the herd) or open (e.g., replacement animals are from outside the herd)? If open, how are replacements chosen?
• How do you choose who to breed?
• Do you know what breeds are best suited to grazing (cattle), browsing (small ruminants), rooting (swine), and scratching and pecking (poultry) in your area?
• Have you considered the pros and cons of a change in your breeding plan?
• Do you practice selective culling for health traits?

Nutrition

Good nutrition helps organic and alternatively raised livestock thrive. Good nutrition impacts fertility, milk or egg productivity, and body condition score (BCS). A healthy diet also contributes to the ability of the immune system to fight disease. Reminding O/A farmers and ranchers of the importance of good nutrition, including protein, is critical.

Nutrition can seem a complicated and overwhelming topic, but important for both animal health practitioners and farmers and ranchers who likely haven’t had any formal training on the topic. Most small O/A farms/ranches raise more than one species, complicating the picture. O/A farmers and ranchers identified knowledge of nutrition and local soil conditions as an important quality in their veterinarian (Steneroden, 2021). Ideally, small farms would have livestock nutritionists and soil scientists on their team. Until then, knowing their veterinarian recognizes the importance of nutrition and soil health, as it relates to organic and alternatively raised animals, meets an identified need.

As a place to start, knowing what nutrients are in the soil and forages and what supplements farms in the area use to make up for any deficiencies is valuable information for veterinarians to know and pass on to farmers. Soil quality can vary within communities, and livestock nutritionists often suggest analyzing pastures and soil. That way, you know what farmers and ranchers might need to do regarding their livestock’s micronutrient supplementation (e.g., cobalt, zinc, iodine, manganese, iron, copper, and selenium). Knowledge of toxic plants in the area is also good information to share with farmers and ranchers. Some states may also regulate the addition of supplements to the soil for USDA-certified organic farmers and ranchers. A discussion with the organic certifier is important before taking any steps to meet identified deficiencies.

Livestock need easy access to clean water. Water is often the last thing that crosses the farmer/rancher’s mind when thinking about nutrition, but it is a common problem. As an essential nutrient for life, animals must always have access to clean, fresh water. This may mean scrubbing tanks in the summer when algae forms or chipping ice off in the winter when it gets cold.

USDA-certified organic livestock have some overarching nutritional requirements. They must be fed a 100% organic diet and have a grazing requirement to fulfill this rule. Swine and poultry, who cannot get a complete diet simply by grazing/ranging, must be supplemented with organic grain or organic protein sources such as soybean meal, camelina, or rapeseed. Organic and alternative grazing/grass farming is a science and an art. The more you know and can learn about the big picture of nutrition, feed, micronutrients, forage, grazing, and soil – the greater resource you will be to O/A farmers and ranchers in your community.

Questions for vets,  farmers, and ranchers to consider:

• Describe your knowledge about nutrition for the livestock you keep or treat.
• Are you aware of the predominant soil types, micronutrient needs, and forages in your area?
• Are soil and micronutrients needs for your farm/ranch an area you would like to improve on?
• Is fresh, clean water always available for your livestock?
• Are you aware of any toxic plants in your area?

Stress – sources, reduction, and management

Providing a low-stress environment supports good health and welfare for livestock and poultry. Good husbandry and stockmanship can go a long way toward alleviating stress in animals. Stressful situations increase cortisol (which stimulates the mobilization of energy to overcome the stressors) (Fustini et al., 2017. Stress increases cortisol levels in most animals (including humans), and increased cortisol levels change energy production and metabolism and cause immune suppression. Stress can come from many different sources, including the environment, handling, movement, transport, overcrowding, and predation (Coffey & Baier, 2012).

Explore each of the sections below to learn about different sources of stress.

Exercise

Exercise positively affects human health, so why not other species? Being outdoors, free to express normal behaviors, and exercising lead to better livestock health. The ability to exercise improves muscle tone, relieves stress and boosts the immune system. This can result in improved health outcomes and smoother deliveries for pregnant animals (Coffey & Baier, 2012) and may contribute to preventing health disorders after calving, such as ketosis and hepatic lipidosis, and improved fertility in dry cows (Goselink et al., 2011). Feedlot cattle put in an exercise pen (with low-stress handling) had better weight gain. In addition, daily exercise has been shown to help dairy cows reduce the effects of heat stress. (Melgares, 2016). Improved claw health has also been found with outdoor access (Loberg et al., 2004). Ideally, O/A livestock should have the choice to be inside or outside, depending on the weather.

Environmental enrichment for livestock

Environmental enrichment for livestock benefits not only animal welfare but productivity by decreasing behavioral issues that might be associated with poor animal health. Tail biting in pigs, mainly seen in continuous confinement operations, is a classic example. Due to the differences in how organic and alternative livestock are raised (outdoor access, etc.), providing enrichment may be less of a concern than on conventional farms. On the other hand, welfare certification programs that organic and alternative farms may want to join usually have environmental enrichment components, such as straw bales and perches for chickens, scratching posts for cattle, or wallows for pigs.

There are several farm welfare certification programs, each with its own rules. A veterinarian would have to be certified for each specific program to assist farmers in becoming certified. This is something veterinarians are being asked to do by  O/A farmers and ranchers more and more under the VCPR and is an area for growth for veterinarians.

Questions for vets, farmers, and ranchers to consider:

Are your livestock/poultry allowed outdoor access and daily exercise? Ideally, they should have the choice to be inside or outside, depending on the weather.

Do you provide any form of environmental enrichment for your livestock (e.g., straw bales and perches for chickens, scratching posts for cattle, or wallows for pigs)?

Vaccination

Veterinarians should recognize that not all O/A farmers (nor conventional producers) are keen on the routine use of vaccines. This provides a great opportunity for discussion and clear communication between veterinarians, farmers, and ranchers to learn, understand, and be sensitive to each other’s views (Coffey & Baier, 2012; Marbleseed Guide for Organic Livestock Production 7th Edition).

In general, organic and alternative farmers believe that access to the outdoors, reduced stress, good nutrition through healthy soil and high-quality forage (species-appropriate diets), good sanitation, and not overcrowding – all the prevention activities discussed above, promote natural immunity and decrease the risk of disease in their animals.

As a result, some use and some don’t use vaccines. In general, O/A livestock farmers often prefer to limit vaccination to disease agents that present clear threats to their animal’s health and provide a greater cost-benefit ratio. Examples include vaccines for respiratory viruses and Clostridial vaccines in cattle. They also may use vaccines for specific diseases they have had in their herds or know are in the area (e.g., leptospirosis). Some believe vaccines are good for disease prevention but choose not to rely on them, believing that vaccination doesn’t make up for poor management and can hide genetic weaknesses in resistance/susceptibility that would otherwise show up).  Some have never vaccinated, haven’t had a problem, and see no reason to start now. In a recent study, some organic dairy farmers said they were open to vaccination in the future if they have a problem but don’t worry about them now (Brock et al., 2021; Karreman, 2016).

The reasons for the use and non-use of vaccines are various and complex. They include fear of side effects, effectiveness, and safety.  Some reasons for not vaccinating included displeasure at the physical act of giving vaccines, especially a series of vaccine doses. But this study also found that some had not thought about it or got around to thinking about implementing vaccine protocols (Brock et al., 2021). This makes it important to communicate about vaccination with O/A farmers and ranchers and why they may not vaccinate.

Traditional vaccines – Many different traditional vaccines, MLV and killed, are available for livestock. They vary in effectiveness, timing, number of doses, and necessity in a particular geographical area. Vaccines can be a confusing topic for any farmer/rancher, traditional or alternative, and warrant a full discussion if the farmer is willing. New vaccines are continuously being developed, some of which may be created using methods or materials that make their use questionable under NOP rules. This remains an evolving area of concern that should be kept in mind by veterinarians and farmers, and ranchers as they consider which vaccines to use in their herds. Some vaccines also contain antibiotics. As always, the farm’s organic certifier should be consulted on any new vaccine and will be aware of appropriate current allowances or restrictions. For more information: NOSB Livestock Subcommittee Proposal Use of Excluded Methods Vaccines in Organic Livestock Production, 16 July 2019).

Autogenous vaccines – (those vaccines made from a particular herd and highly specific to the bug affecting the herd) These act as an alternative to commercial vaccines and were heavily relied upon in the days before antibiotics. They have been seen to work well in organic herds continually challenged by, for example, staphylococcus aureus mastitis (Karreman, Vaccination, and Organic Cow Care. Autogenous vaccines are a quick alternative to commercial vaccines for novel emerging diseases or those that mutate or have high antigenic variability. However, they are only safety tested, so there is no requirement for efficacy.

Nosodes – Nosodes are homeopathic remedies prepared from a disease product. e.g., infected tissue, disease discharges, and causal organisms. (Schoen & Wynn, 1997). Like autogenous vaccines, they are made from diseased animals in the herd (Schoen & Wynn, 1997). The use of nosodes for immunization is controversial. Nosodes work at an energetic level, and the body’s response cannot be measured in the laboratory, as can conventional vaccines’ cellular and humoral responses. While nosodes have not been proven unsafe to use, their effectiveness has not yet been proven. Their use by farmers and ranchers has shown mixed results. They have been used as preventatives but may best be used at the start of a disease outbreak. Herpes, mastitis, and ringworm are diseases that farmers/ranchers, and veterinarians have had success with when using nosodes. Pink eye nosodes have also been used successfully and can be placed in the water tank (Jodarski, 2008).

Vaccines are allowed and encouraged under the National Organic Program (NOP) guidelines. If a farmer/rancher is open to discussing conventional vaccine use – this is a pivotal prevention area, and veterinarians should be closely involved in designing a vaccine program tailored to the specific farm/ranch and its disease risk. Many certifiers request that veterinarians make vaccination recommendations for O/A farmers and ranchers in the local area.

Reminding farmers and ranchers about the spread of disease off their land might be a good idea. Vaccines can do more than protect the animal being vaccinated. The fewer animals shedding pathogens into the environment, the fewer animals or people will spread disease to other areas. A good example is BVD, a very common disease in cattle that is easily spread by infected animals or people moving between farms with cattle. Regular vaccination can be an important tool in a disease prevention program that considers neighbors and one’s own farm. Vaccines also help protect livestock from some diseases they share with wildlife, including brucellosis and BVD.

Questions for vets, farmers, and ranchers to consider:

• What is your plan with regard to vaccines for the species you raise?
• Do you use any alternative form of immunization?
• What are your concerns about using vaccines in your livestock?
• Do you have any questions about the use of specific vaccines in your herd?
• Have you had any diagnosed diseases that could be prevented by vaccine use?

Minimize exposure to parasites

It’s impossible to completely eliminate parasites in livestock. Preventing and controlling them relies heavily on a strong immune system and low exposure. Parasites come in many shapes and forms. For the conventional producer, a one-step pour-on is often used to take care of parasites. Organic and alternative farmers/ranchers don’t have that option. O/A farmers and ranchers must use and will be most successful using a combination of methods for parasite prevention and control (integrated pest management) mentioned below and throughout this chapter.

Parasites were considered an important problem for O/A farmers and ranchers in an ISU survey conducted in 2021 (Steneroden, 2021). It’s no wonder, as external and internal parasites can cause blood loss, decreased appetite, poor weight gain, and losses due to irritation (for external parasites), diarrhea, decreased milk production, reduced reproductive performance, anemia, weakness, and in some cases, death.

The Code of Federal Regulations Part 205(G) provides guidance for USDA-certified organic operations.  More detailed and specific information can be found in the Rules and Regulations and Modalities and treatments chapters.

Overall, parasiticides on USDA-certified farms/ranches are:

• Prohibited in slaughter stock
• Limited use for lactating animals (only certain parasiticides with milk withdrawal rules).
• Allowed in emergency treatment for dairy and breeder stock
• Allowed for fiber and fur-bearing animals if used 36 days before harvest of wool or fleece represented as organic.

General considerations for parasite prevention:

• Parasite prevention, control, and monitoring are opportunities for veterinarians to assist O/A farmers and ranchers. Taking samples (or having producers bring samples to the veterinary clinic) and analyzing them at regular intervals would go a long way in helping farmers know if their parasite prevention and control plan is working.
• A healthy immune system is critical – good nutrition, exercise, and low stress (all key elements from the Focus on Health section of this chapter) also help prevent parasites.
• Use a multi-prong approach – multiple interventions affecting animals and the environment are necessary.
• Focus on pasture conditions, housing, and sanitation that help minimize diseases/parasites.
• In wet years, parasites can maintain themselves for very long periods. Also, in the South, mild winters don’t allow for the die-off of common GI parasites of ruminants. Some parasites can persist over winter in fields. For these reasons and more, managed rotational grazing is the most important thing farmers can do to manage parasites.
• Have diverse pastures with a variety of plants and provide browse.
• Susceptibility to parasites varies between cows, sheep, and goats. Multispecies grazing can help break parasite cycles. Cattle do not share parasites with sheep or goats – but sheep and goats do share parasites.
• A very important consideration in pesticide use is avoiding environmental damage to natural controls such as dung beetles and manure recyclers. For an interesting research article that discusses dung beetles, fly control, organic crop production, and improved food safety, see Jones 2019.

Some specific considerations:

• Keep new animal additions separate from the home herd for at least three weeks to identify and prevent all disease introduction, including parasites. This is often a difficult practice for all types of farmers and ranchers, and its benefits should be stressed and reiterated often.
• Graze younger, more vulnerable animals on a fresh pasture before allowing other, older animals.
• Animals, even if parasitized, can stay ahead of actual pathology if they are fed well, even if it might mean greater feed costs.
• Because larvae are concentrated near the ground, don’t allow grazing lower than 4-6 inches.
• Before allowing animals back on a pasture to graze with a different livestock species, cut it for hay, or rest the pasture for 45-60 days to let parasites die off.
• High tannin forages have been shown to reduce fecal egg counts in sheep and goats (ATTRA Tools for Managing internal parasites in sheep and goats, 2015).
• Calves “sent out back” to the same place year after year are sitting ducks for parasitism – especially if “forgotten” because of more important animal classes to care for (milking herd and neonatal animals).

Fly prevention

• 

  A combination of tools for fly prevention works best.

• Organic sprays are often not very effective and can be expensive.
• Keep facilities clean and dry to reduce fly breeding grounds
• Physical traps, sticky tape, and fly traps can help
• Encourage natural predators such as barn swallows and purple martins and consider predatory wasps.
• Compost manure, mortalities, and afterbirths away from the barn area
• Mimic mother nature’s windy days (flies are not a problem on windy days) by having strong (effective) ventilation in barns
• Mobile chicken coops following animal-grazed areas allow chickens to scratch and peck to eat maturing parasite larvae and decompose manure paddies. But wait three days before the placement of chickens so the dung beetles can accomplish their work first.
• More ideas can come from your extension service and the Integrated Pest Management Guide for Organic Dairies 2016

Certified organic producers must always check with their organic certifier before adding new products and include the plan for use in their OSP.

Questions for vets, farmers, and ranchers to consider:

• Are you using organically allowed strategies to control or prevent flies, mosquitoes, and external parasites? (Examples include: pasture rotation, multispecies grazing, dragging pastures to disperse manure piles, manure management, sanitation, ventilation, and moisture control, screening, fly parasites, and other beneficial insects, bat conservation, purple martins, and other insectivorous birds, walk-through fly traps, sticky traps, flying insect traps, electric bug zappers, biological pesticides, diatomaceous earthy, botanical pesticides)?  Do you have any concerns or questions?
• Do you monitor for internal parasites by collecting and analyzing fecal samples regularly? If you do monitoring, how well is it going?